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Acid (pH less than 7) is present and used as a defense in all of the following body locations EXCEPT:

Some patients infected with the Hepatitis-B virus do not experience any noticeable signs or symptoms. These infections are considered to be:

What is the function of the B cell receptor?

What does the lysogenic cycle allow a bacteriophage to do?

CASE 5:  A 7-year-old boy is taken to the emergency room by his mother after she finds him unresponsive in his bed. She states that her son was sent home from school 3 days earlier after showing flu-like symptoms. He awoke the next morning with body aches, a cough, a sore throat, and a runny nose. After 2 days of taking over-the-counter children’s cold medicine, he had not improved. Upon arriving at the hospital, he is dehydrated, pale, and shaky. The physician notes that he is wheezing and has slight difficulty breathing. A chest X-ray indicates pneumonia of the right lung, which is subsequently determined to be viral. Molecular examination of the virus also reveals the presence of phospholipids. Based upon this information you can reasonably conclude that the virus _____.

CASE 5:  A 7-year-old boy is taken to the emergency room by his mother after she finds him unresponsive in his bed. She states that her son was sent home from school 3 days earlier after showing flu-like symptoms. He awoke the next morning with body aches, a cough, a sore throat, and a runny nose. After 2 days of taking over-the-counter children’s cold medicine, he had not improved. Upon arriving at the hospital, he is dehydrated, pale, and shaky. The physician notes that he is wheezing and has slight difficulty breathing. A chest X-ray indicates pneumonia of the right lung, which is subsequently determined to be viral. B-Cells (and other APCs of the immune system) display antigens on their surface using _____.

CASE 2:  An 80-year-old male is transferred from a nursing home to the hospital because of a severe lower respiratory infection. He is experiencing chest pain, chills, fever, and shortness of breath. He has a productive cough (meaning that he is coughing up sputum). A Gram stain of the sputum reveals numerous short chains of purple cells. A capsule stain reveals the presence of a thick capsule, confirming the Gram stain diagnosis. The physician suspects that the pathogen entered the host through the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. Given this information, which of the following statements is most likely to be INCORRECT?

CASE 5:  A 7-year-old boy is taken to the emergency room by his mother after she finds him unresponsive in his bed. She states that her son was sent home from school 3 days earlier after showing flu-like symptoms. He awoke the next morning with body aches, a cough, a sore throat, and a runny nose. After 2 days of taking over-the-counter children’s cold medicine, he had not improved. Upon arriving at the hospital, he is dehydrated, pale, and shaky. The physician notes that he is wheezing and has slight difficulty breathing. A chest X-ray indicates pneumonia of the right lung, which is subsequently determined to be viral. The patient may have been able to avoid this illness if he had gotten the annual Flu Vaccine. Immunity obtained by vaccination would be considered both _____ and _____.

Some protective antibodies produced by infected individuals during COVID-19 infections bind to the SARS-CoV-2 enveloped virus’ spike proteins and stop them from functioning. As a result, these protective antibodies directly block viral _____.

Which step in the phagocytosis process does activated complement directly improve?