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Ulcerative Colitis Introduction Ulcerative Colitis is defined as an inflammation specifically of the colon that develops ulcers or open sores. Ulcerative Colitis or UC is also considered to be an Inflammatory Bowel Disease that targets more precisely the mucosa of the infected patient’s colon. In most cases the rectum is the first portion infected, but the Ulcerative Colitis can continue to spreads up the GI tract to the rest of the large intestine (Ulcerative Colitis, 2019).  Although, this is not a common disease there is still speculation to its specific cause or causes, but with many distinct signs and symptoms the providers are able to put a name to this very ugly and de-habilitating disease, even though it is still a relatively uncommon disease there are many diverse types of treatments available to the patients that are diagnosed with UC. Etiology of Ulcerative Colitis There are no known causes for Ulcerative Colitis but there are several speculations of it being a mixture of something the patient is exposed to in the environment, the patient’s intestinal microbiome, the patient’s immune system, and also the patient’s genetics (“Ulcerative Proctitis”, 2019). Ulcerative Colitis can affect both genders but more men in their 30’s are actively diagnosed with this disease. There have also been some speculations that a bacteria or virus could be the culprit of Ulcerative Colitis (“Overview of Ulcerative Colitis”, 2019). Even though Ulcerative Colitis can affect an individual at any stage in life most individuals diagnosed will have had signs during their adolescence or early adulthood (Ulcerative Colitis, 2019). Signs and Symptoms of Ulcerative Colitis While Ulcerative Colitis is considered a chronic disease, a patients will go through stages of relapse and remission. Every patient is different, some might have more relapse while others may have more time in remission (Ulcerative Colitis, 2019).  Depending on the area affected in the colon the signs a symptoms can range from milder to more sever and require hospitalization. Frequent bloody diarrhea with pus/ mucus, pain, anemia, leucocytosis, fever, chills, fluid loss, weight loss, and urgency to defecate are just a few signs and symptoms that may occur in patients. Depending on severity toxic colitis can occur along with thinning and proliferation of colon wall and even joint pain are seen in some of the more severe cases of UC (Ulcerative Colitis, 2019). Cancer has also been linked to extensive colitis that last past seven years and after 35 years a patient has a 30% chance of being diagnosed with colon cancer (Walfish, 2019). Physical Assessment Although doctors and nurse practitioners narrow their diagnosis down by the common signs and symptoms they should be cautious to exclude other similar inflammatory bowel diseases and causes of colon inflammation first. Patients should be tested for STD’ s along with stool samples to rule out parasitic or bacterial infections and confirm inflammation with a Calprotectin lab. All medications taken by patient should be assessed to rule out any possible side effects. Colonoscopy should be done if the disease has moved past the reach of a sigmoidoscopy. Biopsy as well as blood tests should be run to test for further complications caused from loss of blood/fluids. Testing should also be run on a patient to assess the health of their liver (Walfish, 2019).     Treatment Several options are available depending on the amount of colon affected and the severity of the signs and symptoms. Treatment is aimed at healing inflammation in the mucosa along with treating symptoms associated with the disease. A course of methylprednisolone or hydrocortisone can be given succeeded by infliximab or cyclosporine. Alternative treatments can include probiotics and fecal transplants along with a change in diet and an addition of extra vitamins (Richards, 2019). Treatments with corticosteroids are given but should be monitored and not used while UC is not active. High doses of prednisone are given and can trigger a temporary remission of UC. Surgery is not an initial treatment but is an option in more severe cases of UC (Ulcerative Colitis, 2019).     Conclusion In conclusion, Ulcerative Colitis or UC can affect anyone and any stage in life and there is no known exact cause of the disease. UC while a chronic disease can come in and out of remission and the signs and symptoms can be varied but their severity is directly related to the amount of the colon that is infected. Although the diagnosis is made primarily off of the patient’s history and symptoms the providers should rule out any other cause of colitis. Finally, while this disease can be extremely de-habilitating the treatments are tailored to each patient and the forms range from simple and noninvasive all the way to a colectomy.       References Overview of Ulcerative Colitis. (2019). Retrieved from http://www.crohnscolitisfoundation.org/what-is-ulcerative-colitis/overview Richards, S. (2019). New guidelines for treating patients with ulcerative colitis. Retrieved from http://www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/gastrointestinal-articles/2019/march/new-guidelines-for-treating-patients-with-ulcerative-colitis-david-rubin Ulcerative Colitis. (2019). Retrieved from http://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/ulcerative-colitis/ Ulcerative Proctitis. (2019). Retrieved from http://badgut.org/information-centre/a-z-digestive-topics/ulcerative-proctitis/ Walfish, A. E. (2019). Ulcerative Colitis. Retrieved from http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/inflammatory-bowel-disease-ibd/ulcerative-colitis

Hepatitis A, B and C Hepatitis is a viral infection of the liver that can be acute or chronic. There are 5 different types of Hepatitis but three of the most common are A, B and C. These 3 virus types can cause a person to become severely ill and without proper treatment type B and C can cause lifelong effects to their liver and to their health. Etiology and Genetic Risk Hepatitis A is transmitted usually through fecal – oral contact and often contracted thru food contamination from lack of hand washing/ hygiene. This infection is often seen in an outbreak vs being widespread due to the nature of transmission. It is primarily an acute infection that does not have long term effects on the liver but in some cases, there is potential for the patient to have a relapse infection. (Matheny & Kingery) Hepatitis B is a blood borne viral infection that is transmitted through contact with infected blood or semen. It can also be transmitted to baby through birth. Although it is an acute infection it can develop into a chronic infection causing liver failure or cirrhosis. There are many people that show serological evidence that they have been exposed to HBV at some point in their life and have been infected. (Sarri, Westby, Bermingham, Hill-Cawthorne, & Thomas, 2013) Hepatitis C is also a blood borne virus that is transmitted through contact with infected blood. It is often seen in chronic IV drug users, the prison population and in the baby boomer population (people born between 1946-1964). Many people are asymptomatic and are only diagnosed after having abnormal lab values that prompt further testing. There are no known genetic risks to contracting HAV, HBV, and HCV due to them being viral infections and being contracted only through their specific mode of transmission. Signs and Symptoms Some people will be asymptomatic while others can have a host of symptoms. These symptoms are the same for all three infections but may be worse or chronic in HCV. Infected patients may experience nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or pale bowel movements, abdominal pain specifically over the liver, worse when palpated, dark colored urine, and yellowing of the skin and eyes called jaundice. Jaundice will be more easily noticed initially in the whites of the eyes. It may cause the patient to itch and in cases where it is extremely high cause them to become confused and disoriented. (Hepatitis: MedlinePlus, n.d.) Physical/ Diagnostic Assessment There are several different diagnostic tests used when a patient is suspected of one of the infections. These tests range from lab work to imaging. Testing often begins with a Hepatic Functions Panel. This test will check for elevated liver enzymes. Elevated liver enzymes are also an indication for further testing in asymptomatic patients that have no known cause for the elevation. This is often how it is caught in Baby Boomers which is why new recommendations are for Baby Boomers to be tested. A Hepatitis Panel is also run to see what kind of antibodies are present. This test can show past and present infection to help determine if there is a current infection process. If the patient is jaundice on presentation a Bilirubin test will also be done. If this level is high you may also notice that your patient is experiencing itching of the skin. (Roche & Kobos, 2004) If the patient is confused or disoriented an ammonia level can also be tested. Increased ammonia levels with the stated symptoms could indicate Hepatic Encephalopathy. (Thangasami, Lalchandhani, & Mathiyalagan, 2016)Imaging is also completed to check for liver changes. These tests include, Abdominal X-ray, Ultrasound, CT or MRI. The goal of these tests is to see what kind of changes the liver has had. Some of these changes for a Hepatitis patient include hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) which can be present on any three of the infections as well as Cirrhosis, liver fibrosis or cancer lesions that would more likely be present in your chronic Hep C patients. Treatment Treatment for these patients will vary depending on the type of Hepatitis present as well as the severity. Hepatitis A often only requires supportive treatment and resolves on its own. Typically, within 2 months. Supportive treatment would include treating the GI symptoms with antiemetics, antidiarrheals, rest and fluids. Most young children will be asymptomatic and not require any treatment. (Hepatitis A Vaccine: What you need to know, n.d.) Treatment for Hepatitis B is based on whether it is acute or chronic. For acute patients the treatment is supportive but for chronic HBV patients antivirals are used (Yapali, Talaat, & Lok, 2014) as well as preventative care to prevent the patient from developing fibrosis, Hepatocellular Carcinoma, or other liver damage. Typically, babies and small children are more likely to become chronic cases than adults. Chronic Hepatitis B and C patients are usually transferred to Gastroenterology or someone who specializes in Hepatology. Treatment for acute HCV patients are the same as HAV and HBV. Treatment for HCV include treating symptoms as well as using protease inhibitor therapies. There are several different drugs that are used to treat HCV such as Harvoni and Epclusa. Preventative care is also important to prevent further liver damage and the potential need for a liver transplant. (Hepatitis C FAQs for Health Professionals, n.d.) Prevention Vaccination and standard precautions are the best preventative measures in preventing contracting these infections. There are HBV and HAV vaccinations available to children and adults. Babies can be vaccinated for HBV at birth. There is no vaccine for HCV but using standard precautions such as using gloves and proper cleaning agents in the healthcare setting. Not sharing needles or having unsafe intercourse can prevent in transmitting this infection from one person to the next. Ultimately prevention and vaccination are the best treatment for HAV, HBV, and HCV. If you have concerns that you could have been exposed to these viruses, have concerning symptoms or want to be vaccinated always follow up with your PCP. References Hepatitis A Vaccine: What you need to know. (n.d.). Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from CDC: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/vis/downloads/vis-hep-a.pdf Hepatitis C FAQs for Health Professionals. (n.d.). Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HCV/HCVfaq.htm Hepatitis: MedlinePlus. (n.d.). Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/hepatitis.html Matheny, S., & Kingery, J. (n.d.). Hepatitis A. Am Fam Physician, 86(11). Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/1201/p1027.html Roche, S. P., & Kobos, R. (2004). Jaundice in the adult patient. American Family Physician, 69(2), 299-304. Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from http://aafp.org/afp/2004/0115/p299.html Sarri, G., Westby, M., Bermingham, S. L., Hill-Cawthorne, G. A., & Thomas, H. C. (2013). Diagnosis and management of chronic hepatitis B in children, young people, and adults: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ, 346. Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from https://bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f3893 Thangasami, S., Lalchandhani, A., & Mathiyalagan, N. (2016). Evaluation of Serum Ammonia in Hepatic Encephalopathy Patients and Its Correlation with Clinical Severity. Journal of gastroenterology and hepatology research, 5(5), 2185-2190. Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from http://ghrnet.org/index.php/joghr/article/view/1787/2205 Yapali, S., Talaat, N., & Lok, A. S. (2014). Management of Hepatitis B: Our Practice and How It Relates to the Guidelines. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 12(1), 16-26. Retrieved 7 12, 2019, from https://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s154235651300606x

Initial post on Types of Burn Injuries Pathophysiology February 10, 2026 Types of Burn Injury  Burn trauma may be obtained by various mechanisms of injury and are characterized by the means of which they are acquired. The main four ways in which burns are manifested are thermal, chemical, electrical, and radiation. The etiology of each type of burn is how healthcare providers are able to define a prognosis along with the classification of the burn. The extent of the burn is determined by the percent of body surface area (BSA), skin thickness, heat level, and contact duration (Capriotti, 2024). Thermal Burns Burns acquired from high heat sources, like fire, scalding liquids or steams, or contact burns are classified as thermal burns. These burns vary depending on the type of duration and depth of exposure and can range from epidermal to subdermal to subcutaneous and deeper. Scald burns are the most prevalent burn in children and are caused by contact with hot, scalding fluids or steam. When these substances are at 158 degrees or higher tissue necrosis occurs within mere seconds. Once exposed to this type of burn, the damage has already occurred and must be treated. In order to treat thermal burns, several steps must ensue. The heat source must be removed, the patient should be stabilized, the individual’s body temperature should be maintained, injury classification should be identified, and the patient should be prepared to be transported. The airway must be assessed and if the airway is not exhibiting eupnea, intubation may be required. If the patient is showing normal respiration, oxygen should be given via face mask and the head should be elevated. The patient should not be given fluids via mouth because of the possibility of aspiration or emesis. Fluids should be given to the patient through an intravenous line in a non-burned area. In cases of highly burned TBSA, the patient may need to undergo fluid resuscitation, preventing hypovolemic shock. Vital signs should be monitored to actively monitor fluid resuscitation and assess circulation.  Chemical Burns Unlike thermal burns, chemical burns are much more infrequent. Industrial workers are the most likely victims of these burns, often ingesting pernicious chemicals. Chemical burns may cause proteolysis, or protein breakdown, and creates the skin of a burn victim to be gray. These types of burns will remain causing damage to the patient until the causative agent of the burn is removed. The chemical agent is removed by firstly removing any clothing that may be harboring the chemical, then if the agent is dry, brushing it off, and flooding the wound with water for 20 minutes. If a patient has been burned with a chemical that requires specialized treatment, calling the Poison Control Center may be necessary for proper treatment.  Electrical Burns Similar to chemical burns, electrical burns account for less than 10% of all burns acquired (Capriotti, 2024). Risk factors for this type of burn include young adult men employed in electrical job positions, often low-income (Chen and Wang, 2024). Electric currents typically create an entry and exit wound on the victim, often damaging internal organs as the current moves through the body. Because of this, it is important that the patient is assessed for internal damage, the current often takes the path of least obstruction in the body. The entry and exit injuries may give important information on the path of the current and provide answers to which of the organs may be harmed. If the patient’s vital organs were damaged, the extent of trauma will be more severe and mortality is more likely. The extent of the trauma is dependent upon the duration of injury, pathway of the electrical current, and amount of voltage. The treatment of electrical burns begins with ensuring that the current no longer remains. Assessing the patient for consciousness sets the provider up to then ensure that the patient is immobilized with a cervical collar to prevent further spinal injuries.  Radiation Burns Radiation burns are distinct because they are acquired by ionizing radiation material. These burns are harmful from thermal burns and also internal and external contamination. External burns from radiation typically affect skin and tissue, and damage may be visibly delayed and appear weeks after the initial exposure. Asking the patient for their remembrance of the event is helpful in understanding the extent of exposure to radioactive materials. Radiation burns are measured in “rads,” or the radiation amount absorbed by tissues. However, the risk of the exposure is measured in “rems.” A patient’s cutaneous radiation injury (CRI) is diagnosed by the amount of radiation, depth of the current, and visible harm obtained. Internal radiation exposure may cause acute radiation syndrome (ARS) if the patient is exposed to extreme amounts of radiation in a short time frame. Damage to the central nervous system and gastrointestinal issues are common in those exposed to extreme levels of radiation. Irrigation of external wounds helps to decrease internal damage. If more information must be received by the providers, the Radiation Emergency Assistive Center may be contacted.  Burn Classifications All burns may be classified under three categories: superficial, partial-thickness, and full-thickness. Superficial burns, previously known as first-degree burns, harm only the epidermis. Sunburns and brief exposure to hot substances are common to this type of burn. With superficial burns skin remains intact, typically are painful, and blistering does not occur. Defining the burned BSA percentage is not necessary since the skin is typically healed within a week. The next degree of burns is partial thickness, formerly named second-degree burns. Depending on the measure of tissue necrosis, partial-thickness burns may be superficial or deep. Superficial partial-thickness wounds burn the epidermis and show epidermal blisters, edema, and wet, raw, pink or red skin. These burns may heal within 3-6 weeks, sometimes with skin discoloration. Deep partial-thickness burns affect the epidermis, and reticular layers of the dermis. The skin color is often similar to that of superficial partial-thickness burns, but can appear blotchier. The patient’s pain may vary from much to little depending on the amount of nerve tissue affected. Blisters are common to this burn, and should remain intact in order to prevent infection. The final classification of burns are full-thickness burns. These burns damage the epidermis, dermis, follicles, and all underlying tissue. Most patients experience no pain because of extensive nerve damage obtained. The skin appears red, black, white, or brown and has considerable edema. These burns are often caused by prolonged exposure and are the most severe burn obtained.  Conclusion In summary, burns are categorized by thermal, chemical, electrical, and radiation. Each type of burn is acquired differently and must be treated likewise. Thermal burns can be recalled as burns acquired from hot liquids or steam. Chemical burns are often from strong acid materials, like household cleaning products. Electrical burns vary from low-voltage household currents to high-voltage from a lightning strike. Radiation burns are acquired from ionizing radioactive material. Finally, each type of burn may range from superficial to partial-thickness to full-thickness and treatment for each burn is extremely varied and should be determined using this classification system.         References: Capriotti, T. (2024). Davis Advantage for Pathophysiology. F.A. Davis. “DynaMed.” Dynamed.com, 2025, www.dynamed.com/condition/burns-in-children-initial-triage-and-management#GUID-A3A21619-9E0B-420B-B3C5-0C990F164D74Links to an external site..  Markiewicz-Gospodarek, Agnieszka, et al. “Burn Wound Healing: Clinical Complications, Medical Care, Treatment, and Dressing Types: The Current State of Knowledge for Clinical Practice.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 3, 25 Jan. 2022, p. 1338, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35162360/, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031338Links to an external site.. Chen, Jigang, and Yanni Wang. “Characteristics and Risk Factors for Electrical Burn Injuries: A Study Based on World Health Organization Global Burn Registry.” Burns, 17 Jan. 2024, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305417924000159, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2024.01.014Links to an external site..  Wallace MD MSc FRCSC, David . “Best Practice Recommendations for Skin Health and Wound Management 2025.” PubMed, 2025, www.woundscanada.ca/doclink/8-bpr-chapter-8-2025/eyJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiJ9.eyJzdWIiOiI4LWJwci1jaGFwdGVyLTgtMjAyNSIsImlhdCI6MTczODg2MDUyNCwiZXhwIjoxNzM4OTQ2OTI0fQ.N8kjTbsYyAcI4vTJtMxLbYvS0T5BPOEIw9-Meqh6oy0Links to an external site..

To determine net cash from financing activities, one must analyze the:

Which of the following statements about financing activities is not correct?

The net cash flow from operating activities is $42,042, the net cash flow from investing activities is $19,331, and the net cash flow from financing activities is ($27,397). If the beginning cash account balance is $11,783, what is the ending cash account balance?

Grievous Corporation issued 5,000 shares of $1 par value common stock. Later that year, Grievous purchased 2,000 shares of its own common stock. Two months later, the company reissued 300 shares. How many shares are issued and outstanding? 

Secord Corporation purchased 2,800 shares of its own $1.50 par value common stock for $135,000. As a result of this transaction, the company’s stockholders’ equity would:

Kenobi Corporation has 10,000 shares of 4% preferred stock outstanding. Also, there are 100,000 shares of common stock outstanding. The par value of preferred stock is $10/share and the par value of common stock is $1/share. If an $82,500 dividend is paid, how much goes to the preferred stockholders?