Consider this excerpt from the trial of Galileo: Whereas you…

Consider this excerpt from the trial of Galileo: Whereas you, Galileo, son of the late Vincenzio Galilei, of Florence, aged seventy years, were denounced in 1615, . . . for holding as true a false doctrine taught by many, namely, that the sun is immovable in the center of the world, and that the earth moves; . . . also, for having pupils whom you instructed in the same opinions; . . . also, for answering the objections which were continually produced from the Holy Scriptures, by glossing the said Scriptures according to your own meaning. Who/what made this accusation against Galileo?

Consider this excerpt from Beccaria’s work on criminal law (…

Consider this excerpt from Beccaria’s work on criminal law (From Cesare Beccaria, An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, E. D. Ingraham, trans. Philadelphia: H. Nicklin, 1819): The torture of a criminal during the course of his trial is a cruelty consecrated by custom in most nations. It is used with an intent either to make him confess his crime, or to explain some contradiction into which he had been led during his examination, or discover his accomplices, or for some kind of metaphysical and incomprehensible purgation of infamy, or, finally, in order to discover other crimes of which he is not accused, but of which he may be guilty. No man can be judged a criminal until he be found guilty; nor can society take from him the public protection until it have been proved that he has violated the conditions on which it was granted. What right, then, but that of power, can authorise the punishment of a citizen so long as there remains any doubt of his guilt? This dilemma is frequent. Either he is guilty, or not guilty. If guilty, he should only suffer the punishment ordained by the laws, and torture becomes useless, as his confession is unnecessary. If he be not guilty, you torture the innocent; for, in the eye of the law, every man is innocent whose crime has not been proved. Crimes are more effectually prevented by the certainty than the severity of punishment. According to this excerpt, what type of punishment does the most to deter crime?

Consider this excerpt from Beccaria’s work on criminal law (…

Consider this excerpt from Beccaria’s work on criminal law (From Cesare Beccaria, An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, E. D. Ingraham, trans. Philadelphia: H. Nicklin, 1819): The torture of a criminal during the course of his trial is a cruelty consecrated by custom in most nations. It is used with an intent either to make him confess his crime, or to explain some contradiction into which he had been led during his examination, or discover his accomplices, or for some kind of metaphysical and incomprehensible purgation of infamy, or, finally, in order to discover other crimes of which he is not accused, but of which he may be guilty. No man can be judged a criminal until he be found guilty; nor can society take from him the public protection until it have been proved that he has violated the conditions on which it was granted. What right, then, but that of power, can authorise the punishment of a citizen so long as there remains any doubt of his guilt? This dilemma is frequent. Either he is guilty, or not guilty. If guilty, he should only suffer the punishment ordained by the laws, and torture becomes useless, as his confession is unnecessary. If he be not guilty, you torture the innocent; for, in the eye of the law, every man is innocent whose crime has not been proved. Crimes are more effectually prevented by the certainty than the severity of punishment. According to this excerpt, what type of punishment does the most to deter crime?