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Around 1200 B.C.E., climate change catalyzed by a major volcanic eruption, waves of migrations, warfare, famine, economic decline, and political discontinuity led to [BLANK-1]. This was a widespread period of crisis and destruction in the Eastern Mediterranean world that saw the decline of Ancient Mesopotamian societies and empires, such as the Egyptians. While it was a period of political turmoil for many established empires of the ancient world, it was also a period of time in which new technologies were circulating.

[BLANK-1] is traditionally attributed to Confucius and claims to be drawn from the most ancient periods of Chinese history. However, it had to be reconstructed by Confucian scholars after the First Emperor ordered the burning of Confucian texts during the Qin Dynasty. Many of the texts in this compilation are forgeries, fakes, or have dubious origins. The advice to Zheng Tang’s (the Shang Dynasty’s first emperor) heir, for example, seems to reference the Mandate of Heaven – a concept that would be proposed in the later Zhou Dynasty to justify their usurpation of the Shang Dynasty. The text suggested that ruling with respect to family and elders, and in accordance with the natural order, will prevent “calamities of heaven.”

One of the most important documents in Islam is [BLANK-1]. This is a collection of sayings and anecdotes attributed to Muhammad and collected by religious scholars in the centuries following his death. It provides details into the normative example of a well-lived life for a Muslim believer (a concept known as Sunna) and is especially important to Sunni Muslims. It serves as the legal basis for the conduct of Muslims.

Egyptian funerary rituals during the Old Kingdom included mummification and carving religious texts and spells in the tomb of a pharaoh in order to bring him back to life and help him ascend to heaven. By the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom, mummification had been democratized, and wealthy nobles and even commoners were then afforded the luxury of mummification. As Egypt came into contact with other Mesopotamian civilizations, their funerary rites became more complex. Egyptians recorded their beliefs about the afterlife, funerary rituals, and the rites of some mystical spells in [BLANK-1], a text written in the New Kingdom. It explained that the soul left the body after death to become part of the divine. Further, it told versions of the Osiris Myth and explained that the god Osiris died each year and was brought back to life by his wife (and sister), Isis, when the Nile flooded. Osiris, and his assistant, the god Anubis who assisted in mummification, weighed the hearts of departed humans to determine whether they had lived justly enough to earn everlasting life.

In a legitimizing document written about 530 B.C.E. and called [BLANK-1], Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great sought to present himself as a liberator of people rather than a conqueror. He depicted himself as a champion of right order, a restorer of traditions, and a purveyor of prosperity to the places he conquered. Particularly, he described his conquest of Babylon, his acceptance of the god Marduk, his disposition to sanction the worship of other Mesopotamian gods, and his willingness to allow exiles to return to their places of origin. By emphasizing his readiness to accommodate newly conquered territories, he further legitimized his rule with the people.

The Hellenistic Period saw a continued flowering of culture, science, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. One of the most notable Hellenistic thinkers was the Alexandrian mathematician, [BLANK-1]. He is most notable for developing many of the central tenets of geometry and for writing the important manual, Elements of Geometry.

The Buddhist path to enlightenment, or Nirvana, stresses following a code of conduct set forth by Buddha in his first sermon called [BLANK-1]. Buddhism ignored the caste system and thus appealed to a wide range of Indian subjects. Men and women, rich and poor, the educated and uneducated, nobles and commoners – all could follow this code of conduct and work to achieve enlightenment.

With [BLANK-1], Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (referring to himself as “the Beloved of the Gods”) detailed his regrets about the violent conquest of Kalinga and used the document to denounce all violence and to promote the righteousness of Buddhism. He referenced spreading the news of Buddhism for hundreds of miles and even delivering news of his Buddhist righteousness to far-flung rulers like the Hellenistic kings, including Alexander the Great, Ptolemy, and Antigonus. This document was part of a series of pillars that were displayed throughout India in order to promote Buddhism and legitimize Ashoka’s rule

The Upanishads described [BLANK-1] as the unchanging, ultimate reality and claimed that an individual’s soul was ultimately the same as this cosmological concept (unchanging and real in contrast to the ephemera that people consider important in everyday life). One’s soul was the same substance as the ultimate, unchanging reality in the same way that an individual spark is the same substance of a large fire. This concept was central to the Aryan religion in Ancient India, and later became a central concept of Hinduism. The goal for Hindus is to reach union with that ultimate, unchanging reality.

China’s Warring States Period brought tragedy, famine, destruction, and death; but, it also inspired Chinese intellectuals to propose new ways of organizing society and living morally. This intellectual flowering was known as the Hundred Schools of Thoughts. Many ideologies were reactions against Confucianism, but others simply proposed new ideas. [BLANK-1] was among the ideas discussed by Chinese intellectuals of the era. It proposed that human beings should pursue pleasure as the chief aim of their life.