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Members of ___________ gangs are described as double failures because they have not been successful in the legitimate world and have been equally unsuccessful in the illegitimate worlds of organized criminal activity and violence-oriented gangs.

In testing Hirschi’s theory, Michael Hindelang found that involvement in delinquency was positively related to

The primary concern of labeling theorists is

When Freda Adler studied the importance of nonlegal factors in the decision making of juries, she found that the __________ of the defendants significantly influenced their judgment.

The least squares regression formulas used to estimate regression coefficients are designed to…

David Matza states that a youth may enter into a state of _____, or a period when he or she exists in limbo between convention and crime, when a bind between the youth and the law is not in place.

According to Ross, __________ rather than specific laws guide what people do and universally serve to control behavior.

Which of the following is not a form of Hirschi’s first bond, attachment?

Critics of Marxist persuasion believe that labeling theory _____.

According to Travis Hirschi, one of the four social bonds that promote socialization and conformity is _____.