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As it contained quinine (a prophylaxis against Malaria), [BLANK-1] became the “imperial cocktail” and was widely used by British imperialists in tropical colonies in Africa and Asia. By regularly consuming this cocktail, European colonizers were protected from tropical disease in ways that they had never previously been, which allowed them to expand deeper into the interior of Africa.

In 1946, following WWII, the upper echelons of Nazi leadership were accused, tried, and executed for crimes against humanity at [BLANK-1]. Justice was swift and targeted, and the ordinary rank-and-file Nazis did not experience much in terms of punitive actions. Ordinary Nazis were just forced to go through de-Nazification training.

[BLANK-1] was the figure most responsible for modernizing and secularizing Egypt. This Egyptian leader built a nationalist regime embodying elements of Arab Socialism after executing a coup against the British-supported government in 1952. He ordered the building of the Aswan Dam and nationalized the Suez Canal. His willingness to ally with the Soviets and then to accept a U.S.-backed resolution to the Suez Canal Crisis demonstrated his success at being able to achieve national gains by playing the two superpowers off one another.

The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s was generally very peaceful. That was not true in Romania, where the revolution turned exceedingly violent. Communist dictator [BLANK-1] refused to step down or cede power to protestors seeking democratic reforms and an end to the communist government. He unleashed his security forces on protestors, where they killed more than 100 in Timișoara. More than 1,100 were killed by police and soldiers in Bucharest in the following days, before the dictator’s forces were overwhelmed by the protestors. The communist dictator and his wife were publicly executed by the military on Christmas Day, 1989. They were the last people to be executed in Romania, as the new government outlawed capital punishment two weeks later.

What does the term “heptarchy” refer to?  

Following Germany’s defeat during WWI, the country transitioned from a monarchy to a democracy called [BLANK-1]. This German government lasted from 1919-1933, and initially had the markings of a successful democratic state. A number of issues worked against this fledgling democratic government, however. Due to the peace agreements that emerged from WWI, Germany was forced to cede its industrial heartland in the Ruhr Valley to France. It was also forced to pay massive reparations even when the state fell into economic and political disarray. It suffered from an incredible amount of post-war hyperinflation (for example, in 1919, nine German Marks would purchase one American Dollar but in 1923 it took 4.2 trillion Marks to purchase one American Dollar). These crises doomed the government, allowed extremism to flourish, and paved the way for Adolf Hitler’s rise to power.

During the twentieth century, the United States frequently violated the sovereignty of Latin American countries in order to pursue their own economic interest. That was particularly true in Guatemala, when the country elected a leftist-leaning president, [BLANK-1]. Despite his left-leaning policies, such as an agrarian bill that led to land distribution, this Guatemalan leader was unassociated with the Soviet Bloc. Nevertheless, his election sent alarm bells ringing in the United States during the Red Scare. His policies also affected the United Fruit Company (now called Chiquita Banana). The company had a 99-year lease in Guatemala but had been intentionally undervaluing the land in order to avoid paying taxes. The new Guatemalan president insisted that the company properly assess the value of the land and pay back taxes, or have the land purchased from them at the absurdly low price that the company had valued it at: $0.02 an acre. Americans Allen Dulles (CIA Director) and John Foster Dulles (Secretary of State) were on the board of directors of the company and they used their political pull to instigate a coup against the democratically elected Guatemalan president. In 1954, supported by the United States and the CIA, Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas overthrew the president and he spent the rest of his life in exile. This contributed to the Guatemalan Civil War, in which between 140,000-200,000 people were killed or went missing.

What social hierarchy does the concept of “three estates” refer to in medieval literature?

[BLANK-1] was a reformist communist leader of Hungary from 1953-1955 who admitted non-communists into his administration, implemented democratic reforms, aimed to gain autonomy from the Soviets, and withdrew Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. His reforms were too radical for the Soviet Union’s liking, however, and the country coerced the Hungarian Communist Party to remove him from office. In October and November of 1956, he returned to power during the Hungarian Revolution, with the help of students who wished to distance the country from Soviet control. He led Hungary during the revolution and ruled for eleven days. On November 4, 1956, 2,000 Soviet tanks and 150,000 troops under the auspices of the Warsaw Pact descended on Budapest, crushed the rebellion, and rounded up and executed this Hungarian leader. During the Hungarian Revolution thousands were killed (mostly young students) and more than 200,000 were exiled.

A nationalist from the Gold Coast named [BLANK-1] led the first successful sub-Saharan African independence movement. Inspired by Marcus Garvey’s Pan-Africanism, this leader pushed for decolonization in the Gold Coast and formed the brand new, independent African nation: Ghana. He became Ghana’s first president and was later involved in the Third World Movement.