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The DIKW hierarchy represents the flow from Data → Information → Knowledge → Wisdom. 

Data cleaning involves removing duplicates and handling missing values.

The Open Data Movement promotes:

Normalization in data preprocessing adjusts values to a common scale without distorting differences in ranges.

Naïve Bayes classifiers does not assume conditional independence among features given the class. 

The “Why Data Matters” concept emphasizes that decisions should be based on facts rather than intuition.

Which algorithm is commonly used for continuous outcome prediction

K-Means always yields identical results regardless of initialization.

Which of the following is not a text preprocessing step?

Data anonymization replaces or removes identifiers to protect individual privacy.