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A patient with CKD progresses to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).  What are the primary treatment options for ESRD? 

Esophageal varices are primarily caused by which of the following conditions? 

An older adult is hospitalized with acute kidney injury (AKI) after starting a new medication. Why are older adults more susceptible to drug-induced kidney injury? 

An older adult with a history of autoimmune disease presents with signs of liver damage.

A patient with Cushing’s syndrome has elevated cortisol levels. Which layer of the adrenal cortex is responsible for cortisol production? 

Which of the following is the most common mechanism of hyponatremia? 

A patient with low T4 levels is being evaluated for thyroid dysfunction. How does the feedback control mechanism respond to low T4 levels? 

A 65-year-old male with a history of dementia is brought to the emergency department with lethargy and restlessness. His serum sodium level is 150 mmol/L.  What is the most appropriate initial management for this patient? 

During which phase of the menstrual cycle do estrogen and progesterone provide positive feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary? 

The liver plays a major role in metabolic homeostasis by: