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A patient with kidney disease has low levels of active vitamin D. What role do the kidneys play in vitamin D metabolism? 

A patient presents with epigastric pain and is diagnosed with peptic ulcer disease (PUD). Which of the following is a common cause of this condition? 

A researcher is studying the role of peritubular capillaries in kidney function. What is the primary function of peritubular capillaries in the kidney? 

How do hormones regulate kidney function to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance? 

A patient with CKD progresses to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).  What are the primary treatment options for ESRD? 

Esophageal varices are primarily caused by which of the following conditions? 

An older adult is hospitalized with acute kidney injury (AKI) after starting a new medication. Why are older adults more susceptible to drug-induced kidney injury? 

An older adult with a history of autoimmune disease presents with signs of liver damage.

A patient with Cushing’s syndrome has elevated cortisol levels. Which layer of the adrenal cortex is responsible for cortisol production? 

Which of the following is the most common mechanism of hyponatremia?