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Which of the following is an example of a primary aversive stimulus?

“In operant conditioning, stimuli can have multiple functions, such as serving both as discriminative stimuli (SD) and conditioned stimuli (CS).” 

What is a common consequence of punishment?

How does behavioral momentum theory explain why some unwanted behaviors are difficult to eliminate?

“Conditioned aversive stimuli (Save) acquire aversive properties through an individual’s learning history rather than being inherently unpleasant.”

How can noncontingent punishment lead to learned helplessness?

“Employees who feel unfairly punished at work may avoid their supervisor or find ways to work less, demonstrating escape or avoidance behavior.”

Give an example of negative reinforcement in daily life and explain why it qualifies as negative reinforcement.

How does the avoidance paradox relate to public health behaviors, such as vaccination?

“Intermittent punishment is more effective than continuous punishment in reducing behavior.”