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Each year, researchers track strains of influenza as they de…

Each year, researchers track strains of influenza as they develop an updated influenza vaccine. In recent years, this vaccine has been a quadrivalent one, i.e., one containing antigens targeting four influenza strains (two type A and two type B influenza viruses), although for the 2024-2025 season, the influenza B/Yamagata strain has been dropped from the vaccine (this is because we have not detected it since March 2020, and we believe we have driven it to extinction as a result of non-pharmaceutical interventions implemented at the start of the COVID pandemic – i.e., a happy victory for humans!) In addition to the possibility of changing strains based on their prevalence, researchers update the specific antigens for each strain involved. This is because even if a strain included last year is still a dominant one this year, it will have undergone sufficient ______ via the accumulation of point mutations that the effectiveness of our immune response from last year will not be as protective this year. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

Consider three general outcomes of viral infections based on…

Consider three general outcomes of viral infections based on their relationship to their host. Match each bacteriophage infection with the analogous (most closely representative) animal virus infection. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

When an individual is infected with a virus, each time the v…

When an individual is infected with a virus, each time the viral genome is replicated, there is the chance the polymerase will make mistakes. Mistakes that lead to missense mutations result in changes in viral proteins. Accumulations of such point mutations over time results in changes in viruses referred to as ______. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.

A researcher studying the evolution of HIV analyzes viral sa…

A researcher studying the evolution of HIV analyzes viral samples collected from a patient over a period of several years. They observe a gradual accumulation of mutations in the viral genome, including some that affect the protease enzyme, a target for antiretroviral drugs. The gradual accumulation of mutations in the HIV genome over time, including in those affecting the protease enzyme, is most likely an example of ______. Copyright 2025 by Dr. Jonathan A. Miller. All rights reserved. Online sharing or distribution is prohibited. For exam use only in BIOL& 260: Microbiology at Edmonds College. Outside help is not allowed.  

Nanotechnology  Nanotechnology is a term that often conjures…

Nanotechnology  Nanotechnology is a term that often conjures images of futuristic science fiction. However, today, it is a very real and rapidly developing field that holds immense potential to revolutionize various aspects of our lives. From medicine to electronics, nanotechnology is paving the way for advancements that were once thought impossible. In this text, we will explore what nanotechnology is, its applications, and the potential it holds for the future.  Nanotechnology is the science and engineering of manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular scale, typically between 1 to 100 nanometres. To put this into perspective, a nanometre is one-billionth of a meter, much smaller than the width of a human hair or even a single strand of DNA. By working at such a minuscule scale, scientists can create materials and devices with unique properties and functions that are not possible at larger scales.  The concept of nanotechnology was first introduced by physicist Richard Feynman in his famous 1959 lecture, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” Feynman envisioned the possibility of manipulating individual atoms to create new materials and devices. However, it wasn’t until the 1980s, with the invention of the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM), that scientists were able to observe and manipulate matter at the nanoscale directly. These breakthroughs laid the foundation for the field of nanotechnology as we know it today and it has applications in several areas.  One of the most promising areas of nanotechnology is in the field of medicine. Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the way we diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases. For example, nanoparticles can be designed to deliver drugs directly to cancer cells, minimizing damage to healthy cells and reducing side effects. This targeted drug delivery system can improve the effectiveness of treatments and lead to better patient outcomes.  Nanotechnology is advancing medical imaging by using gold nanoparticles as contrast agents to improve tumour visibility in scans, enabling earlier and more accurate disease detection. Additionally, it is transforming the electronics industry by facilitating the development of nanoscale transistors for increasingly smaller and more powerful devices. Graphene, known for its exceptional electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, is being investigated for its potential to create faster, more efficient transistors, sensors, and flexible electronic displays.  Nanotechnology is playing a crucial role in the development of sustainable energy solutions. For example, nanomaterials are being used to improve the efficiency of solar panels. By manipulating materials at the nanoscale, scientists can create solar cells that capture more light and convert it into electricity more efficiently.  Nanotechnology is also being used to develop better batteries and energy storage systems. Nanostructured materials can increase the surface area of electrodes, allowing for faster charging and longer-lasting batteries. This has significant implications for renewable energy storage and the future of electric vehicles.  Nanotechnology has the potential to address some of the most pressing environmental challenges. For instance, nanomaterials can be used to create more efficient water filtration systems, removing contaminants and providing clean drinking water. Additionally, nanotechnology can be used to develop materials that can absorb pollutants from the air, reducing air pollution and improving air quality.  While nanotechnology holds immense promise, it also raises important ethical and safety considerations. The potential risks of nanomaterials to human health and the environment are not yet fully understood. As a result, there is a need for rigorous research and regulation to ensure that nanotechnology is developed and used responsibly.  For example, the small size of nanoparticles allows them to enter the human body easily, potentially leading to unforeseen health effects. Researchers are studying the toxicity of various nanomaterials to understand their impact on human health. Additionally, there are concerns about the environmental impact of nanomaterials, as they could accumulate in ecosystems and affect wildlife.  Ethical considerations also come into play when discussing the societal implications of nanotechnology. For instance, the development of advanced nanotechnology could lead to job displacement in certain industries, as well as exacerbate existing inequalities if access to these technologies is not equitable.  The future of nanotechnology is incredibly exciting, with the potential to transform numerous industries and improve our quality of life. As research continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative applications and breakthroughs.  In medicine, nanotechnology could lead to personalized treatments tailored to an individual’s genetic makeup, improving the effectiveness of therapies and reducing side effects. In electronics, the development of nanoscale components could result in faster, more efficient, and more powerful devices. In energy, nanotechnology could enable the widespread adoption of renewable energy sources, helping to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.  However, it is essential to approach the development of nanotechnology with caution, ensuring that ethical and safety considerations are addressed. By doing so, we can harness the full potential of nanotechnology to create a better, more sustainable future for all.  Nanotechnology is a fascinating and rapidly evolving field with the potential to revolutionize various aspects of our lives. From medicine and electronics to energy and the environment, the applications of nanotechnology are vast and diverse. As we continue to explore and develop this technology, it is crucial to consider the ethical and safety implications to ensure its responsible use. The future of nanotechnology is bright, and with careful consideration, it can lead to significant advancements that benefit society as a whole.