Which оf the fоllоwing wаs used in lecture аs аn analogy for the non-specific immune response?
Pаssаge 1 | Humаn Biоnics [A] Amanda Kitts is mоbbed by fоur- and five-year-olds as she enters the classroom. "Hey, kids, how're my babies today?" she says, patting shoulders and ruffling1 hair. Slender and energetic, she has operated this Knoxville, Tennessee, daycare center and two others for almost 20 years. She crouches down to talk to a small girl, putting her hands on her knees. [B] "The robot arm!" several kids cry. "You remember this, huh?" says Kitts, holding out her left arm. As she turns her hand palm up, there is a soft whirring sound. If you weren't paying close attention, you'd miss it. She bends her elbow, accompanied by more whirring. [C] "Make it do something silly!" one girl says. "Silly? Remember how I can shake your hand?" Kitts says, extending her arm and rotating her wrist. A boy reaches out, hesitantly, to touch her fingers. What he brushes against is flesh-colored plastic, fingers curved slightly inward. Underneath are three motors, a metal framework, and a network of sophisticated electronics. The assembly is topped by a white plastic cup midway up Kitts's biceps, encircling a stump2 that is almost all that remains from the arm she lost in a car accident in 2006. [D] Almost all, but not quite. Within her brain, below the level of consciousness, lives an intact image of that arm, a phantom. When Kitts thinks about flexing3 her elbow, the phantom moves. Impulses racing down from her brain are picked up by electrode sensors in the white cup and converted into signals that turn motors, and the artificial elbow bends. [E] "I don't really think about it. I just move it," says Kitts, who uses both this standard model and a more experimental arm with even more control. "After my accident, I felt lost. These days I'm just excited all the time, because they keep on improving the arm. One day I'll be able to feel things with it and clap my hands together in time to the songs my kids are singing." [F] Kitts is one of "tomorrow's people," a group whose missing or ruined body parts are being replaced by devices embedded in their nervous systems that respond to commands from their brains. The machines they use are called neural prostheses or - using a term made popular by science fiction writers - bionics. [G] The kind of prosthesis that Amanda Kitts uses is controlled by her brain. A technique called targeted muscle reinnervation uses nerves remaining after an amputation4 to control an artificial limb. It was first tried in a patient in 2002. Four years later, Tommy Kitts, Amanda's husband, read about the research, which took place at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (RIC). His wife lay in the hospital at the time; the truck that had crushed her car had also crushed her arm, from just above the elbow down. [H] "I was angry, sad, depressed; I just couldn't accept it," she says. But the news Tommy brought her about the Chicago arm gave her some reassurance, and some hope. "It seemed like the best option out there, a lot better than motors and switches," Tommy says. "Amanda actually got excited about it." Soon they were on a plane to Illinois. [I] Todd Kuiken, a licensed medical practitioner and biomedical engineer at RIC, was the person responsible for what the institute had begun calling the "bionic arm." He knew that nerves in an amputee's stump could still carry signals from the brain, and he knew that a computer in a prosthesis could direct electric motors to move the limb. However, making the connection was far from straightforward. Nerves conduct electricity, but they can't be spliced together with a computer cable. (Nerve fibers and metal wires are not mutually compatible, and an open wound where a wire enters the body would be a dangerous avenue for infections.) [J] Kuiken needed an amplifier to boost the signals from the nerves, avoiding the need for a direct contact between nerve and wire. He found one in muscles. When muscles tense, they give off an electrical burst strong enough to be detected by an electrode placed on the skin. He developed a technique to reroute severed nerves from their old, damaged spots to other muscles that could give their signals the proper boost. [K] In October 2006, Kitts consented to have Kuiken try out his new technique on her. The first step was to salvage major nerves that once went all the way down her arm. "These are the same nerves that work the arm and hand, but we had to create four different muscle areas to lead them to," Kuiken says. The nerves started in Kitts's brain - in the motor cortex, which holds a rough map of the body - but they terminated at the end of her stump. In an intricate operation, a surgeon rerouted those nerves to different regions of Kitts's upper-arm muscles. For months the nerves grew, millimeter by millimeter, moving deeper into their newly assigned homes. [L] "At three months, I started feeling little tingles and twitches," says Kitts, "and by four months, I could actually feel different parts of my hand when I touched my upper arm. I could touch it in different places and feel different fingers." What she was feeling were parts of the phantom arm that were mapped into her brain, now reconnected to flesh. When Kitts thought about moving those phantom fingers, her real upper-arm muscles contracted. [M] A month later, she was fitted with her first bionic arm, which had electrodes in the cup around the stump to pick up the signals from the muscles. Now the challenge was to convert those signals into commands to adjust the elbow and hand. A storm of electrical noise was coming from the small region on Kitts's arm. Somewhere in there was the signal that meant "straighten the elbow" or "turn the wrist." A microprocessor inserted in the prosthesis had to be programmed to differentiate the right signal and send it to the right motor. [N] Kitts practiced using her arm one floor below Kuiken's office in an apartment set up by occupational therapists. The apartment had a kitchen with a stove, silverware in a drawer, a bed, a closet with hangers, a bathroom, and stairs - things people use every day without a second thought but that pose huge obstacles to someone missing a limb. [O] Watching Kitts make a peanut butter sandwich in the kitchen is a startling experience. With her sleeve rolled back to reveal the plastic cup, her motion is fluid. Her live arm holds a slice of bread, her artificial fingers close on a knife, the elbow flexes, and she swipes peanut butter back and forth. "It wasn't easy at first," she says. "I would try to move it, and it wouldn't always go where I wanted." But she worked at it, and the more she used the arm, the more lifelike the motions felt. [P] What Kitts would really like now is sensation. That would be a big help in many actions, including one of her favorites - gulping coffee. "The problem with a paper coffee cup is that my hand will close until it gets a solid grip. But with a paper cup, you never get a solid grip," she says. "That happened at Starbucks once. It kept squeezing until the cup went ‘pop.'" [Q] There are valid reasons for supposing that one day she'll get that sensation, says Kuiken. In partnership with bioengineers at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, RIC has been developing a new prototype5 for Kitts and other patients that not only has more flexibility - more motors and joints - but also has pressure-sensing pads on the fingertips. The pads are connected to small rods that poke into Kitts's stump. The harder the pressure, the stronger the sensation in her phantom fingers. [R] "I can feel how hard I'm grabbing," she says. She can also differentiate between rubbing something rough, like sandpaper, and smooth, like glass, by how fast the rods vibrate. "I go up to Chicago to experiment with it, and I love it," she says. "I want them to give it to me already so I can take it home. But it's a lot more complicated than my take-home arm, so they don't have it completely reliable yet." [S] Today, Kitts has a new, more elastic cup atop her arm that better aligns electrodes with nerves that control the arm. "It means I can do a lot more with the arm," she says. "A new one up in Chicago lets me do lots of different hand grasps - I want that. I want to pick up pennies and hammers and toys with my kids." These are reasonable hopes for a substitute body part, Kuiken says. "We are giving people tools, and they are better than what previously existed. But they are still crude, like a hammer, compared with the complexity of the human body." [T] The work of neural prostheses is extremely delicate, a series of trials filled with many errors. As scientists have learned that it's possible to link machine and mind, they have also learned how difficult it is to maintain that bond. Still, bionics represents a major leap forward, enabling researchers to give people back much more of what they've lost than was ever possible before [U] "That's really what this work is about: restoration," says Joseph Pancrazio, program director for neural engineering at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. "When a person with a spinal cord injury can be in a restaurant, feeding himself, and no one else notices, that is my definition of success." Passage 1 | Question 9 Which of the following statements is a fact, NOT an opinion?
Vоcаbulаry | Unit 1B DIRECTIONS: Cоmplete the sentences using the wоrds in the box. Mаke sure to spell the words correctly. channels dispersed doomed ingenuity invaders mechanisms regime reservoir subsequently subversive Most visitors to Agra in India head for the famous Taj Mahal. But not far away is an impressive deserted city, Fatehpur Sikri. The city was built during the [word1] of Emperor Akbar, when the Mughals ruled this part of India. The location was chosen when Akbar came to the area to meet a Sufi saint who predicted that Akbar would have a son. [word2], when the heir to the throne was born in 1571, Akbar decided to build his capital in that place. Mughal civilization was famous for the [word3] of its architecture and the buildings of Fatehpur Sikri are outstanding examples of the style. The city itself covers a wide area with public buildings, mosques, and palaces [word4] throughout it. Around the city, Akbar built a long fort wall to protect it from [word5]. However, the city was [word6] to failure. Water in the area was scarce, so the Emperor built an artificial lake to act as a [word7]. But the [word8] for supplying the water channels were not adequate and the city suffered from water shortages. Akbar abandoned his city after only 10 years, and died 20 years later, at the age of 63. The end of his reign was disturbed by the [word9] actions of his son, who rejected his reforms and tried to dethrone his father. The empire rapidly crumbled. Today, visitors to the ghost city can see dry [word10] that were meant to bring water to large gardens and man-made lakes. The empty red sandstone buildings at this UNESCO World Heritage Site are a tribute to the architectural skill of the Mughals, but also a reminder that water is essential for a civilization to flourish.